Strategies for Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation: Education, Legislation and Community Engagement
By
Idesukhe Ayeni
Introduction
“It was my grandmother who took me to where I was cut. It was very painful. After the cutting, they use hot water to wash the cut part. As you can imagine, it's very painful. I was like six years old then. I didn't know the implications of the FGM.”[1]
–Mrs. Josephine Ezaka
The above statement by an FGM survivor captures the experience of more than 125 million girls and women alive today who have been cut in 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East where Female Genital Mutilation, also known as Female Genital cutting, is concentrated.[2]
Female Genital Mutilation comprises all procedures involving partial or total removal of the external female genitalia or other injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons (WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, 1997).[3] It includes procedures that intentionally alter or cause injury to the female genital organs for non-medical reasons. It has no health benefits for girls and women. According to WHO[4], there are four classifications varying in severity and method. Type I, also known as clitoridectomy, involves partial or total removal of the clitoris and or prepuce. Type II, or excision, entails partial or total removal of the clitoris and labia minora, sometimes including the labia majora. Type III, called infibulation, is the most severe form, narrowing the vaginal opening by creating a seal through cutting and repositioning the labia, with or without clitoral excision. Type IV encompasses all other harmful non-medical procedures to female genitalia, such as pricking, piercing, incising, scraping, and cauterisation.[5]
More than 230 million girls and women alive today bear the physical and emotional scars of female genital mutilation (FGM), which is a practice that spans 30 countries across Africa, the Middle East, and Asia. This staggering figure represents a profound violation of the human rights of young girls, especially from infancy to age 15.[6]
The consequences of FGM are severe and long-lasting for victims and can be grouped into the following categories: “health, physical, psychological, sexual and social”.[7] Physically, it can lead to excessive bleeding, infections, and complications during childbirth, potentially endangering both mother and child. Psychologically, victims often suffer from recurring nightmares, trauma, and fear of childbirth. FGM can significantly diminish sexual desire and satisfaction, leading to marital problems and increased risk of sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS, due to partners seeking relations elsewhere. These physical and psychological impacts often result in social isolation, divorce, and stigmatisation, profoundly affecting the overall well-being and quality of life for women who have undergone FGM.[8]
The impacts go far beyond physical and psychological trauma. Each year, an estimated US$ 1.4 billion is spent treating the health complications arising from this practice.[9]
The eradication of FGM demands a multifaceted approach, one that harnesses the power of education, leverages the force of legislation, and engages communities at their core. This essay explores the strategies that hold the promise of ending FGM, examining how we can forge a path towards a future through education, legislation and community engagement.
Education
“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.”
-Nelson Mandela[10]
Thus, education can be a great weapon to eradicate FGM around the globe.
Schools can offer a forum for learning and discussion about female genital mutilation as it creates an environment of confidence, trust and openness. Artists and others who provide positive role models can be brought into schools, and materials can be developed for teachers and integrated into school curricula and teacher training on subjects such as science, biology and hygiene as well as those in which religious, gender and other social issues are addressed[11]
Further training sessions contribute, which must be comprehensive both in the range of people trained and in the range of topics covered. In some places, three- to four-week courses have been held for programme implementers, healthcare providers and others to give them the information and skills required to plan, implement and evaluate a community-based intervention. [12]
Health education using the health risk approach can be useful in imparting knowledge related to the physical, psychological, and emotional consequences of FGM. Health education can also trigger and guide discussions among practising communities on the effects of FGM and, hence, the need for action to eliminate the practice.[13] Several studies found that health education had a positive impact on changing knowledge, beliefs, and the attitude of individuals towards the practice[14]
Studies have found that, in some countries, one-third or more of women had their daughter subjected to the practice by a trained health professional.[15] Consequently, there is a need to educate health professionals to report FGM cases when they are brought to them to be carried out, as medicalising the process does not eradicate the harm caused.
Further, in many communities, the practice is upheld by beliefs associated with religion. The role of religious leaders varies. Those who support the practice see efforts to eliminate it as a threat to culture and religion. Some religious leaders also participate in these efforts. Thus, educating religious leaders of the dangers and a perspective from their religious views has shown to counter their stance providing for a change in practicing societies.[16]
Further, Strengthening girls’ assets and agency by providing education, livelihood opportunities, and girls' clubs to learn about social issues, expand support networks, and take leadership roles in advocating against FGM. Recognising girls as powerful agents of change, building social movements to end FGM enables girls, women, and their allies to influence social change towards justice. Education plays a critical role in breaking the cycle of poverty and preventing FGM, as educated women are less likely to support its continuation, even if it doesn't prevent FGM in younger girls.[17]
In Senegal, for example, according to research by Kandala & Komba, due to an active national education programme against FGM, of 5,000 villages previously practising FGM, 3,300 had forsworn the practice in public declarations by 2008.[18]
Legislation
Legislation serves to accelerate change in FGM practice in environments where community members are already questioning or have abandoned the practice and are seeking social acceptance. According to a survey carried out by the Department of Reproductive Health and Research World Health Organization, anti-FGM legislation provides an official legal platform for project activities, offers legal protection to women and ultimately discourages excisers and families fearing prosecution[19]. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that legislation alone is not effective in changing attitudes towards FGM and its prevalence. Previous research shows that legislation must be accompanied by political will, the existence of locally appropriate enforcement mechanisms[20]
International laws and conventions against FGM
International efforts and legal instruments against Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) include numerous initiatives and frameworks. The United Nations has been at the forefront, with the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), UNAIDS, UNDP, UNECA, UNESCO, UNFPA, UNHCR, UNICEF, UNIFEM, and WHO issuing an interagency statement in 2008 calling for the elimination of FGM. Additionally, the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action of 1995 underscored the need to eradicate harmful practices against women, including FGM. The African Union's Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa, also known as the Maputo Protocol, adopted in 2003, is a significant regional instrument. Furthermore, the African Union's Agenda 2063 includes a vision to end FGM in the continent. UNICEF, in collaboration with UN Women and Plan International, has been instrumental in taking stock of progress and advocating for the end of FGM, as highlighted in their 2020 report, "A New Era for Girls: Taking Stock of 25 Years of Progress.[21]
Major international accomplishments in combating FGCs thus far have included the adoption of the Convention for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) and the Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC). CEDAW, adopted by the General Assembly in 1979, requires states to “abolish ... customs and practices which constitute discrimination against women” (Section 2(f)). The CRC, which followed a decade later, requires states to “take all effective and appropriate measures to abolish traditional practices prejudicial to the health of children” (Section 24(3)). Both conventions have been widely ratified—in fact, the CRC is the most widely ratified convention in history.[22]
National Laws Criminalising FGM
Since 1965, 24 of the 29 countries with the highest prevalence of FGM/C have passed legislation against FGM/C[23] The penalties range from a minimum of three months to a maximum of life in prison. Several countries also impose monetary fines.[24] Consequently, Countries have put laws against FGM through the following frameworks:
- Constitutional recognition of the rights of girls and women
- Criminal laws
- Child protection laws
- Civil laws and remedies
Nigeria as a Case Study
Nigeria has adopted national legislation as a strategy for eradicating FGM in Nigeria, Consequently, we examine legislation against FGM:
1. The Constitution:
The Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999) does not explicitly prohibit FGM or mention violence against women and girls or harmful practices. However, Section 34(1) provides that every individual is entitled to respect for their dignity and shall not be subjected to torture or inhuman or degrading treatment.[25] While this does not directly address FGM, it could be interpreted to cover the practice.
2. Criminal laws:
The Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act (VAPP Act) of 2015 is the main federal legislation that makes female genital mutilation (FGM) illegal in Nigeria. Key provisions include:
- Section 6(1) prohibits FGM
- Section 6(2) criminalises performing FGM or engaging another to perform it
- Section 6(3) criminalises attempting to perform FGM
- Section 6(4) criminalises inciting, aiding, abetting or counselling another to perform FGM
Penalties include up to 4 years of imprisonment and/or fines of up to 200,000 Naira for performing FGM and up to 2 years of imprisonment and/or fines of up to 100,000 Naira for attempting or assisting with FGM.[26]
However, as a federal law, the VAPP Act only applies in the Federal Capital Territory of Abuja. States must pass mirroring legislation to enact it across the country.
3. Child protection laws:
The Child Rights Act of 2003, in provisions such as section 11(b), prohibits subjecting children to torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. While not explicitly mentioning FGM, this could be interpreted to cover the practice. However, the Act has only been adopted in 23 states plus the Federal Capital Territory.
While Nigeria has made progress in establishing a legal framework to combat FGM, particularly with the VAPP Act, challenges remain in implementation and enforcement.
Consequently, laws are pivotal mechanisms; however, much needs to be done concerning implementation. A review of U.S. State Department Reports reveals that Anti-FGM laws in Africa have resulted in only a handful of prosecutions[27].
Community Engagement
Community engagement is crucial at all levels, religious and secular, to secure a supportive environment for change. This is true at the community as well as at the national level. Such leaders who are at the forefront in advocating the abandonment of female genital mutilation play an important role in both providing arguments against the practice and generating social support for change. [28]
Further, alternative rites of passage offer a promising approach by respecting cultural traditions while eliminating harmful practices. Engaging the community, including elders, religious leaders, and families, to reimagine coming-of-age ceremonies in Kenya. By preserving the cultural significance of transition rituals without the physical harm, alternative rites maintain social cohesion while protecting girls' health and rights.[29]
Community engagement has emerged as a crucial strategy in efforts to end Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). A compelling example of this approach can be seen in Burkina Faso, where significant progress was made in 2019 by community-based initiatives.[30]
At the heart of this strategy were community child protection committees, which identified and monitored girls at risk of FGM. These committees focused on girls aged 0-14. Their efforts resulted in preventing approximately 175,700 girls from undergoing FGM in that year alone, demonstrating the effectiveness of local, community-driven approaches.
A key to the success of this initiative was community facilitators, known as "techniciens d'appui aux communautés". These facilitators managed adolescent clubs that engaged girls and boys aged 10-19. These clubs served as platforms for education and awareness, providing life-skills training and information about harmful practices and violence against children (VAC) through interactive sessions. The engagement was significant, with around 372,000 young people participating in these clubs in 2019.
The community facilitators' role extended beyond these clubs. They conducted community education sessions and dialogues on harmful practices and VAC, fostering open discussions and encouraging community-wide reflection. This approach helped to challenge and transform social norms that perpetuate FGM.
Recognising the influence of religious leaders in shaping community attitudes, the facilitators also worked closely with these influential figures to support changes in social and gender norms.
Additionally, the initiative recognises the importance of family dynamics. Community facilitators provide positive parenting education through monthly home visits. This approach aimed to empower parents with the knowledge and skills to protect their children from harmful practices and to foster a supportive family environment.
This comprehensive community engagement strategy in Burkina Faso illustrates how involving various community stakeholders - from children and adolescents to parents, religious leaders, and dedicated community facilitators - can create a powerful movement against FGM.
Conclusion
In the last two decades, FGM prevalence rates have dropped by a quarter, and the proportion of girls and women in high-prevalence countries who oppose the practice has doubled.[31] However, in some countries, FGM remains near-universal or is as common today as it was even 30 years ago, and progress would need to be at least 10 times faster than it has been over the past 15 years.[32] Thus, we must all come together to bring an end to this ravaging monster.
As encapsulated by Miss Uzodimma Lucy Ogodo, an FGM survivor and the Executive Director of Tomorrow is a Girl Initiative, a Non-Governmental Organization (NGO) in Abakaliki, Ebonyi State.
“No girl or woman deserves to be cut; it simply destroys our spirit.”[33]
Bibliography
1. Berer M, 'The history and role of the criminal law in anti-FGM campaigns: Is the criminal law what is needed, at least in countries like Great Britain?' (2015) 23(46) Reproductive Health Matters 145-157.
2. Budiharsana M, 'Female circumcision in Indonesia: extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women's health rights' (Population Council 2004).
3. Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999.
4. Diop NJ and Askew I, 'The effectiveness of a community‐based education program on abandoning female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegal' (2009) 40 Stud Family Plann, DOI: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2009.00213.
5. Karhu RK, 'Female Genital Mutilation - Effects on Women and Young Girls' (Bachelor's thesis, Diaconia University of Applied Sciences 2010) <https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38021037.pdf> accessed 23 July 2024.
6. 'Law and Culture in a Global Context' (2010) 6 Annu Rev Law Soc Sci 195-215 <www.annualreviews.org> accessed 26 December 2014.
7. Matanda DJ and others, 'What interventions are effective to prevent or respond to female genital mutilation? A review of existing evidence from 2008–2020' (2023) 3(5) PLOS Global Public Health <https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001855>.
8. Ngianga-Bakwin Kandala and Paul Nzinga Komba, 'Geographic Variation of Female Genital Mutilation and Legal Enforcement in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study of Senegal' (2015) 92(4) American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 838.
9. Satti A and others, 'Prevalence and determinants of the practice of genital mutilation of girls in Khartoum, Sudan' (2006) 26 Annals of Tropical Paediatrics: International Child Health 303.
10. ‘15 Nelson Mandela Quotes | Britannica’, Encyclopædia Britannica (2024) <https://www.britannica.com/list/nelson-mandela-quotes#:~:text=%E2%80%9CEducation%20is%20the%20most%20powerful,use%20to%20change%20the%20world.%E2%80%9D> accessed 29 July 2024.
11. United Nations Children's Fund, 'A Decade of Action to Achieve Gender Equality: The UNICEF Approach to the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation' (UNICEF, October 2020).
12. UNICEF, 'Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change' (2013).
13. ‘Ending Female Genital Mutilation: The Survivor Stories from Southeastern Nigeria’ (Unicef. 2024) <https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/stories/ending-female-genital-mutilation-survivor-stories-southeastern-nigeria> accessed 22 July 2024.
14. Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015.
15. WHO and others, 'Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement' (2008) <https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596442> accessed 22 July 2024.
16. World Health Organization, 'Female Genital Mutilation Programmes to Date: What Works and What Doesn't' (World Health Organization 2011) WHO/RHR/11.36.
17. World Health Organization, 'Female Genital Mutilation: Fact Sheet' (WHO, 2014) <https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth> accessed 23 July 2024.
18. World, ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ (Who.int 5 February 2024) <https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation> accessed 23 July 2024.
[1] ‘Ending Female Genital Mutilation: The Survivor Stories from Southeastern Nigeria’ (Unicef.org2024)<https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/stories/ending-female-genital-mutilation-survivor-stories-southeastern-nigeria> accessed 22 July 2024.
[2] UNICEF, 'Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting: A Statistical Overview and Exploration of the Dynamics of Change' (2013)
[3] WHO and others, 'Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement' (2008) https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596442 accessed 22 July 2024
[4] WHO meaning the “World Health Organisation
[5] World Health Organization, 'Female Genital Mutilation: Fact Sheet' (WHO, 2014) https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth accessed 23 July 2024
[6] World, ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ (Who.int5 February 2024) <https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation> accessed 23 July 2024.
[7] Karhu RK, 'Female Genital Mutilation - Effects on Women and Young Girls' (Bachelor's thesis, Diaconia University of Applied Sciences 2010)<https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/38021037.pdf> accessed 23 July 2024
[8] Ibid
[9] World, ‘Female Genital Mutilation’ (Who.int5 February 2024) <https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation> accessed 23 July 2024.
[10] ‘15 Nelson Mandela Quotes | Britannica’, Encyclopædia Britannica (2024) <https://www.britannica.com/list/nelson-mandela-quotes#:~:text=%E2%80%9CEducation%20is%20the%20most%20powerful,use%20to%20change%20the%20world.%E2%80%9D> accessed 29 July 2024.
[11] UNICEF, 'Changing a Harmful Social Convention: Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting' (2005) Innocenti Digest
[12] WHO and others, 'Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement' (2008) https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596442 accessed 22 July 2024
[13] Diop NJ and Askew I, 'The effectiveness of a community‐based education program on abandoning female genital mutilation/cutting in Senegal' (2009) 40 Stud Family Plann, DOI: 10.1111/j.1728-4465.2009.00213.
[14] Ibid
[15]Satti A and others, 'Prevalence and determinants of the practice of genital mutilation of girls in Khartoum, Sudan' (2006) 26 Annals of Tropical Paediatrics: International Child Health 303
[16] Budiharsana M, 'Female circumcision in Indonesia: extent, implications and possible interventions to uphold women's health rights' (Population Council 2004)
[17] United Nations Children's Fund, 'A Decade of Action to Achieve Gender Equality: The UNICEF Approach to the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation' (UNICEF, October 2020)
[18] Ngianga-Bakwin Kandala and Paul Nzinga Komba, 'Geographic Variation of Female Genital Mutilation and Legal Enforcement in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case Study of Senegal' (2015) 92(4) American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 838
[19] World Health Organization, 'Female Genital Mutilation Programmes to Date: What Works and What Doesn't' (World Health Organization 2011) WHO/RHR/11.36
[20] Matanda DJ and others, 'What interventions are effective to prevent or respond to female genital mutilation? A review of existing evidence from 2008–2020' (2023) 3(5) PLOS Global Public Health https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0001855
[21] Berer M, 'The history and role of the criminal law in anti-FGM campaigns: Is the criminal law what is needed, at least in countries like Great Britain?' (2015) 23(46) Reproductive Health Matters 145-157
[22]'Law and Culture in a Global Context' (2010) 6 Annu Rev Law Soc Sci 195-215 <www.annualreviews.org> accessed 26 December 2014
[23] Berer M, 'The history and role of the criminal law in anti-FGM campaigns: Is the criminal law what is needed, at least in countries like Great Britain?' (2015) 23(46) Reproductive Health Matters 145-157
[24] Ibid
[25] Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999
[26] Violence Against Persons (Prohibition) Act 2015
[27] 'Law and Culture in a Global Context' (2010) 6 Annu Rev Law Soc Sci 195-215 <www.annualreviews.org> accessed 23 July 2024
[28] WHO and others, 'Eliminating Female Genital Mutilation: An Interagency Statement' (2008) https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241596442 accessed 22 July 2024
[29] Chege JN, Askew I and Liku J, 'An assessment of the alternative rites approach for encouraging abandonment of female genital mutilation in Kenya' (Population Council 2001)
[30] United Nations Children's Fund, 'A Decade of Action to Achieve Gender Equality: The UNICEF Approach to the Elimination of Female Genital Mutilation' (UNICEF 2020) Co
[31] United Nations Children's Fund, UN Women and Plan International, 'A New Era for Girls: Taking Stock of 25 Years of Progress' (UNICEF 2020)
[32] United Nations Children's Fund, 'Female Genital Mutilation: A New Generation Calls for Ending an Old Practice' (UNICEF 2020)
[33] ‘Ending Female Genital Mutilation: The Survivor Stories from Southeastern Nigeria’ (Unicef.org2024)<https://www.unicef.org/nigeria/stories/ending-female-genital-mutilation-survivor-stories-southeastern-nigeria> accessed 22 July 2024.
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